Notes on Kaúxuma Núpika and other Warrior Women

Ktunaxa Nation

Kaúxuma Núpika (also known as Qánqon Kámek Klaúla) is an extraordinary figure from the history of the Ktunaxa Nation, being the subject of Schaeffer's (1965) "The Kutenai Female Berdache: Courier, Guide, Prophetess, and Warrior". 

Living during the early 19th Century, Kaúxuma Núpika was an apparently normal girl, albeit large in stature. However, she quickly became dissatisfied with her marriage to a White man, and thereafter claimed he had transformed her into a man. From that moment on, Kaúxuma Núpika lived as a man, having a series of several wives, becoming a Prophetess and Warrior. Although Kaúxuma Núpika's life history differs from the classic childhood onset trajectory, there are similarities between this case and the South African gangster Gertie "Johnny" Williams (Chetty, 2013a) (Chetty, 2013b).

The following are excerpts from Schaeffer (1965):

"Turning next to the subject of abnormal sexual behavior among women in the Northern Plains and adjacent Plateau, cases of true sexual inversion appear to have been less frequent than among men. Among the Kutenai [Ktunaxa] the only case of female aberrancy known to contemporary informants was that of Qanqon kamet klaura [Kaúxuma Núpika], the subject of this study. The native term for such an individual was titqattek, 'pretending to be a man.'"

"There was general agreement among my informants that the Kutenai berdache was born and raised in the Lower Kutenai country. Some believed that the present Bonners Ferry region was originally her home, while others were inclined to place it farther down the Kootenai River, near present Creston, B. C."

"Her childhood seems to have been normal at least so far as modern Kutenai are aware. It is possible, however, that her outsize physique at maturity was prefigured in her earlier years, perhaps eliciting teasing and derogatory remarks from her age-mates. Informants denied that she was an intersexed individual, word of which would have been impossible to conceal from her people. Her baby name, according to Mary White Pete, was ququnok patke,' one standing (lodge) pole woman'. As a young woman she was said to have been quite large and heavy boned. She wished to marry at this time, but because of her unusual size none of the young men were attracted to her."

"The Kutenai girl reached maturity at the time employees of the North West Company were first entering the Kutenai country from the east. Eneas Abraham said that a party of fur traders arrived in the Lower Kutenai region, and upon their departure she accompanied them. It was probably at this time that she met the voyageur, who would take her to wife. According to Mary White Pete, she quickly became dissatisfied and wished to return home. However, she was absent from her people for over a year."

"We are fortunate in having information about the marriage of the Kutenai woman from David Thompson. Dressed as a man, she and her consort on July 26, 1811, sought his protection while in the lower Columbia River region against unfriendly Indians and in discussion of the incident Thompson notes:

"on looking at them, in the Man I recognized the Woman who three years ago was the wife of Boisverd, a Canadian, and my servant; her conduct was then so loose that I had to request him to send her away to her friends (Thompson 1916:512-513)."

From the above it would seem that the Kutenai woman had married Thompson's servant, a Canadian named Boisverd in 1808. Boisverd, from entries in Thompson's journals (1807- 1811)2 seems to have worked intimately with the famous trader-geographer and was one of the voyageurs to accompany him across the Rockies west to the Kutenai Country in 1807. Boisverd and his Kutenai wife, together with Thompson, probably wintered at Kootanae House in 1808-09 and it may have been there that Madame Boisverd learned to speak the limited amount of Cree that she would later use to good effect at Fort Astoria. It was also probably there that Madame Boisverd's loose conduct, so uncharacteristic of Kutenai women in general, prompted Thompson to have her sent back to her own people. Boisverd's stay in the Kutenai country ended in misfortune as he was ruptured by a violent fall from a horse near Kootanae House in April, 1810. He went out and down the Saskatchewan River with Thompson to White Mud House in June of that year (Henry and Thompson 1897:871, fn. 33 However Boisverd evidently returned to duty some time that fall, as he turned up at Saleesh House, January 30, 1811, bearing a letter from Finan McDonald to Thompson (Journals, 1807-1811)."

"After more than a year's absence Madame Boisverd returned to her own people. She had a strange tale to relate. According to her story, her husband had operated upon her and thereby transformed her into a man. She told her relatives, ' I'm a man now. We Indians did not believe the white people possessed such power from the supernaturals. I can tell you that they do, greater power than we have. They changed my sex while I was with them. No Indian is able to do that.' Thereafter she changed her name to Kauxuma nuipika, 'Gone to the spirits'. And whenever she encountered anyone she performed a little dance as an indication of her sexual transformation. Soon she began to claim great spiritual power. Her people were unable to understand these strange happenings and some believed she was bereft of her senses."

"Following Madame Boisverd's return, she began to assume the habits and pursuits of the opposite sex. Men's shirts, leggings and breech cloths were now substituted for the women's dresses she had previously worn. She seems to have had little or no difficulty adapting herself to the new garments, since she evaded detection in such garb at Fort Astoria for an entire month. She also began to carry a gun as well as bow and arrow. Now she wished to marry a person of her own sex and is said to have approached several young unmarried women in succession, all of whom refused her...Finally Madame Boisverd found one woman from the area along the Kootenay River, southeast of modern Nelson, B. C. ,3 who had been abandoned by her husband and was willing to live with her. The two were now to be seen constantly together...Thereafter, the Kutenai berdache is said to have changed wives frequently..."

"In conclusion, the Kutenai ' man-woman' appears to have been a female transvestite, with homosexualism as an erotic object, who adopted the role and status of the opposite sex. She was not an intersexed individual, as such a condition would have been known to her family and could scarcely have been concealed from her tribe. If our information is correct, her psychosexual transformation took place at maturity and followed upon her marriage to a French-Canadian voyageur. Thereafter, she adopted men's clothing, assumed male activities, and lived as ' husband' to a succession of women."

The complete journal entry from David Thompson's Narrative (512-3):

"July 28th. A fine morning; to my surprise, very early, apparently a young man, well dressed in leather, carrying a Bow and Quiver of Arrows, with his Wife, a young woman in good clothing, came to my tent door and requested me to given them my protection;2 somewhat at a loss what answer to give, on looking at them, in the Man I recognised the Woman who three years ago was the wife of Boisverd, a canadian and my servant; her conduct then was so loose that I had then requested him to send her away to her friends, but the Kootanaes were also displeased with her; she left them, and found her way from Tribe to Tribe to the Sea. She became a prophetess, declared her sex changed, that she was now a Man, dressed, and armed herself as such, and also took a young woman to Wife, of whom she pretended to be very jealous: when with the Chinooks, as a prophetess, she predicted diseases to them, which made some of them threaten her life, and she found it necessary for her safety to endeavour to return to her own country at the head of this River."

"2. This throws new light on the "two strangers" who had arrived at Astoria from the interior on June 15, 1811, carrying a letter addressed to "Mr. John Stuart, Fort Estacatadene, New Caledonia"—a letter which had been given them by Finan McDonald to get them out of the Spokane country (see the accounts of them given by Gabriel Franchère and Alexander Ross). Thompson had seen them at Astoria, but does not mention them until they seek his protection at the rapids. An account of the career and death of a woman who is probably identical with the one here referred to will be found in Sir John Franklin's Narrative of a Second Expedition to the Shores of the Polar Sea, London, 1828, pp. 305-6. [J.B.T. and T.C.E.]"

"Running Eagle" and "Woman Chief"

Schaeffer (1965) describes two other Native female masculinity found among the Blackfeet: "Running Eagle" and "Woman Chief". However, neither case is described as one of true "sexual inversion".

"Running Eagle" was described as a masculine girl, whose father figure cultivated in her masculine skills. Although forced to assume women's duties for several years, she later became a Warrior Woman who earned the man's name "Running Eagle". She refused to marry and is said to have cohabited with a young widow, but there is no indication that this relationship was sexual in nature. 

Schaeffer (1965) writes: 

"Women warriors appear to have been more numerous among the Blackfoot than some of the neighboring tribes. The most famous was the Piegan woman, Running Eagle, whose life James Willard Schultz (1919) has recorded in a novelistic vein. Although the events as set down by Schultz are not inconsistent with our knowledge of Blackfoot life, the outline of her life from that source is set forth with some reluctance below."

"Yellow Weasel Woman, as she was known in her earlier years, came of a prominent Piegan family of the Small Robes band. At the age of 10 or 12 she began to exhibit masculine interests. Her father made her a good, sinew-backed bow and she began to join the boys in their games. She not only avoided girl companions but refused to learn feminine pursuits. Soon she began to care for the family's herd of horses and join hunting parties, helping to butcher and transport meat to camp. For several years, however, her mother's illness forced her to assume women's duties and the entire care of the household devolved upon her. On the death of her father at the hands of the Crow, she assumed responsibility as head of the household and for the care of her brothers and sisters. Taking in a young, childless widow to assist in lodge work, she started to hunt for the family."

"Her career as a warrior began in her teens, when a small Piegan hunting party, of which she and her father were members, were attacked by the Assiniboine. During the fight she saved her father's life. She evinced increasing interest in raiding parties, encouraging the members on departure and welcoming them on return. She trailed a Piegan war party going against the Crow, and finally admitted as a member stole 11 horses and killed a Crow warrior. Upon her victorious return, she was allowed to join in singing the Victory Song, and the Scalp Dance was performed in her honor."

"As she grew older, she is said to have had a number of suitors but refused to marry. She fasted for a supernatural guardian and is believed to have obtained power from the Sun. Subsequently she declared that the Sun had forbidden her to marry. Thereafter, she was reverenced as a medicine woman."

"About this time the Piegan camp was raided by Pend d'Oreille warriors and many horses were stolen. The Blackfoot retaliated, and on this excursion she first wore a warrior's costume. On this war raid 19 of the enemy were slain and 600 horses taken. Upon her return the man's name of Running Eagle was given her, the first and only woman so honored in the memory of Schultz's informants. In addition she was offered membership in the Brave's Society. Because of her good fortune, she soon began to lead raids and some of the bravest Piegan warriors served under her. However, she would only raid those tribes which had first attacked the Blackfoot. She led a party against the Assiniboine, during which she worsted the enemy chief in hand-to-hand conflict. Her successful raids continued. One summer, however, some Piegan hunters were attacked and killed by the Pend d'Oreille. To avenge their death, Running Eagle led a large party across the mountains. In the battle which followed, Running Eagle was killed. We have no definite statement from Schultz as to the period of her life, but various characters and events in his account tentatively suggest the years prior to 1850. The Piegan, for example, were still trading at Fort Union, Fort Benton not yet having been established. Lone Walker was chief of the Piegan, and the Small Robe band apparently had not yet met their mortal defeat in 1845 by the Crow (Ewers 1946:400); all of which suggest the 1830-1850 period."

"Woman Chief" bears several similarities to "Running Eagle". Because she was a masculine girl, her adoptive father figure taught her in masculine skills. Although she had several wives, these were marriages of convenience and there is no indication they were sexual in nature. 

Schaeffer (1965) concludes: 

“Further such masculine trends as appeared among Plains Indian women were confined to occasional instances of transvestism or taking on male roles in warfare.”

"One of the most prominent of these native amazons was the 'Woman Chief' of the Crow Tribe. My account of her is taken from E. T. Denig (1930:433-434; 1953:64-68), who had known her for ten years at Fort Union. He remarks that hers was the only known instance of a woman attaining the rank of chief among any of the tribes of the Missouri. A Gros Ventre by birth, she was captured as a child by the Crow and was reared by and lived with that tribe. Noticing a disposition in her to assume masculine habits and employment, her captor encouraged her to learn to hunt, herd horses, and ride fearlessly. Under his tutelage, she soon became a fine shot with gun and bow and arrow, and spent most of her time killing deer, elk, buffalo, and grizzly, which she butchered and packed back to camp. Her protector having been killed in battle, she then assumed charge of his lodge and family."

"The Woman Chief's career as a warrior began unexpectedly. It happened that the Blackfoot attacked a few lodges of Crow near the trading post in their country. That of the captive girl was among them. The survivors took refuge in the fort. The enemy wished to parley, and the only one who would venture forth from the fort was the girl. As she approached the Blackfoot, several came forward to secure an easy prey. Instead she shot one down with her gun and wounded two others; all without receiving a wound herself. Although pursued to the fort, she escaped unharmed. This daring act stamped her as a warrior. A year later she headed her first war excursion against the Blackfoot. Fortune again favored her. She and her party stole 70 horses from the enemy camp. Pursued and brought to bay, the Crow raiders made off with most of the horses and two enemy scalps. One of the two Blackfoot was killed and scalped by the girl partisan, while she counted coup and seized a gun from the second. Other hazardous expeditions were undertaken and successfully carried out. In almost every battle some gallant act distinguished this resolute woman. Old men began to believe she bore a charmed life. Her adopted people seemed to be proud of her and sang songs of her brave deeds after each engagement. When council assembled, she took her place among the chiefs, ranking third in a band of 160 lodges.21"

"The Crow ' Woman Chief', it should be noted, was not a transvestite. Throughout her life she wore woman's attire, except for hunting arms, equipment, and the man-type robe decorated with her war deeds"

"Taller and stronger than most women, the Crow Woman Chief, as Denig noted in 1854, ' is tolerably good-looking, had been handsome, is now about 40 years of age. . . 2 2 Her masculine pursuits proved unattractive to the Crow men and she continued to lead a single life. However, she kept up in the style of a man and chief, and had her guns, bows, lances, and war horses. With the idea of turning her hides to some account by tanning and fitting them for trading purposes, she took herself a wife, and later several more. Denig remarks that these were no more than servants taken to do feminine work."

The full quote from Denig (1930):

"Women are never acknowledged as chiefs, or have anything to say in councils. We know of but one anomalous instance of the kind on the whole upper Missouri which, being very remarkable, merits notice. She is a Blackfoot by birth, but having been taken prisoner when young by the Crows, was raised by and has since resided with that nation, being identified with them."

"We have known this woman for 10 years, and during that time have seen her head large war parties of men against the Blackfeet, bringing away great numbers of horses, and killing several of the enemy with her own hand. She is likewise a good huntress, both on foot with the gun and on horseback with the bow and arrow, ranks as a warrior and brave and is entitled to a seat in councils of the Crow Nation. She ranked as fifth from the Crow chief in a council held by the writer with the Crows and the Cree at Fort Union on the occasion of making a peace between these two nations. She keeps up all the style of a man and chief, has her guns, bows, lances, war horses, and even two or three young women as wives, but in reality servants. In appearance she is tolerably good-looking, has been handsome, is now about 40 years of age, and still goes to war. Her name is “Woman Chief,” and although dressed as a woman the devices on her robe represent some of her brave acts. She is fearless in everything, has often attacked and killed full-grown grizzly bears alone, and on one occasion rode after a war party of Blackfeet, killed and scalped one alone (within sight of our fort on the Yellowstone), and returned unharmed amid a shower of bullets and arrows. This extraordinary woman is well known to all whites and Indians. She resided at Fort Union last winter, and appears in private disposition to be modest and sensible; but she is an only instance in all the roving tribes of the Missouri. Her success induced an imitation a few years since by an Assiniboin woman, but she was killed by the enemy on her first war excursion, since which no rivals have sprung up."

Schaeffer (1965) concludes: 

"The occurrence of masculinity among women seems to have been largely confined, as previously stated, to occasional transvestism and participation in varying degree in intertribal warfare and raiding. In view of these conclusions, the Kutenai berdache case seems all the more atypical.”

"Houma Woman Chief"

A similar case to "Woman Chief" was reported among the Houma tribe. This is not an example of sexual inversion or homosexuality, but that of an impressive Warrior Woman. 

From Gravier (1700:148-9): 

"The old man who keeps up the fire— the name of which, he told us, was "louak or loughe", the "sacred fire"— showed us the bones of the woman chief who died last year. That woman had so distinguished herself by the blows that she inflicted upon her enemies, having in person led several war parties, that she was looked upon as an Amazon, and as the mistress of the whole village. Greater honor was paid to her than to the great chief; for she occupied the first place in all the councils, and, when she walked about, was always preceded by four young men, who sang and danced the calumet to her. She was dressed as an Amazon; she painted her face and wore her hair like the men."

Lang (1998) writes: 

"The biography of a Houma “Amazon” who died around 1700 and about whom Gravier reported reads similarly. Houma women obviously went to war, but one of them so distinguished herself that she rose to achieve the highest honors: Greater honor was paid to her than to the great Chief, for she occupied the 1st place in all the Councils, and, when she walked about, was always preceded by four young men, who sang and danced the Calumet to her. She was dressed as an Amazon; she painted her face and Wore her Hair like the men. (Gravier 1959:147f.) As “femme Chef” (woman chief), she was laid to rest in the temple of the Houma (Gravier 1959:147), an honor that in the Southeast was restricted to the nobility (see Swanton 1946:718ff.). Dead commoners among the Houma were buried on scaffolds (Swanton 1946:729)."

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References

Chetty, D. (2013a). A drag at Madame Costello's: Cape maffie life and the popular press in the 1950s and 1960s. In Defiant Desire (pp. 115-127). Routledge.

Chetty, D. (2013b). Lesbian gangster: the Gertie Williams story. In Defiant Desire (pp. 128-133). Routledge.

Gravier, J. (1700). Journal of the voyage of Father Gravier. In Thwaites, R. G. Jesuit relations and Allied Documents: Travels and Exploration of the Jesuit Missionaries in New France 1610-1791. The Burron Brothers Company, Cleveland. 1896-1901. https://www.fadedpage.com/books/20121044/html.php 

Lang, S. (1998). Men as women, women as men: Changing gender in Native American cultures. University of Texas Press.

Schaeffer, C. E. (1965). The Kutenai Female Berdache: Courier, Guide, Prophetess, and Warrior. Ethnohistory, 12(3), 193–236. https://doi.org/10.2307/480512

Thompson, D. (1916). David Thompson's Narrative of his Explorations in Western America 1784-1812, edited by J. B. Tyrrell. Toronto: The Champlain Society.