These Sanskrit Words Don't Mean "Lesbian" "Bisexual" or Female-to-Male "Transgender"
Several Sanskrit terms have been mistranslated as "lesbian" "bisexual" or female-to-male "transgender", due to misconceptions that have been popularized by Amara Das Wilhelm's (2008) Tritiya-Prakriti. This work contains several inaccuracies, including claims that "Lesbians are called svairini or nastriya in Sanskrit" and that the term tritiya-prakriti includes natal females.
Wilhelm (2008) describes how nastriya means "she is deficient in womanhood" or "not female", defining it like so:
"The word nastriya refers to third-gender women with a critical deficiency in any of the female traits. It is used in Vedic literature to denote women who are “not fully female,” impotent with men, masculine, barren, without female organs or otherwise of questionable womanhood. At least ten different types of nastriya are mentioned throughout Sanskrit texts and said to be produced when the “seed” of both parents is equal in quantity and quality at the time of conception. Additional factors such as previous life impressions, parental conditions and various afflictions within the womb further differentiate such third-gender offspring."
Wilhelm (2008) also outlines "The Ten Types of Nastriya":
Women who are impotent with men are mentioned less frequently in Vedic literature. Nevertheless, at least ten different types of nastriya or third-gender women can be found in various Sanskrit texts and are listed below.
1) Svairini—she engages in lovemaking with other women. 2) Kamini—she engages in lovemaking with both men and women. 3) Stripumsa—she is masculine in behavior and form. 4) Shandhi—she is averse to men and has no menstruation or breasts. 5) Narishandha—her womanhood is completely destroyed. 6) Varta—her female “seed” is afflicted in utero. 7) Sucivaktra or Sucimukhi—she has an extremely small, undeveloped vagina. 8) Vandhya—her menstruation is absent or suppressed. 9) Moghapuspa—her attempts to unite with the man are fruitless. 10) Putraghni—she has repeated miscarriages.
The svairini is described in the Kama Sutra (2.8); the kamini in the Bhagavata Purana (5.24.16); the stripumsa in the Mahabharata and various astrological texts; the shandhi, sucivaktra, vandhya and putraghni in the Sushruta Samhita (6.38); the shandhi, narishandha, varta, sucimukhi and putraghni in the Caraka Samhita (4.2; 4.4; 6.30), and the moghapuspa in various Sanskrit lexicons. The first three types are physically capable of bearing children whereas the remaining seven are infertile.
Wilhelm (2008) misunderstands the meaning of svairini and kamini. None of the other terms describe same-sex sexuality either. The Ayurvedic medical texts describe intersex conditions, not homosexuality or transsexuality.
Wilhelm (2008) also outlines "The Ten Types of Nastriya":
Women who are impotent with men are mentioned less frequently in Vedic literature. Nevertheless, at least ten different types of nastriya or third-gender women can be found in various Sanskrit texts and are listed below.
1) Svairini—she engages in lovemaking with other women.
2) Kamini—she engages in lovemaking with both men and women.
3) Stripumsa—she is masculine in behavior and form.
4) Shandhi—she is averse to men and has no menstruation or breasts.
5) Narishandha—her womanhood is completely destroyed.
6) Varta—her female “seed” is afflicted in utero.
7) Sucivaktra or Sucimukhi—she has an extremely small, undeveloped vagina.
8) Vandhya—her menstruation is absent or suppressed.
9) Moghapuspa—her attempts to unite with the man are fruitless.
10) Putraghni—she has repeated miscarriages.
The svairini is described in the Kama Sutra (2.8); the kamini in the Bhagavata Purana (5.24.16); the stripumsa in the Mahabharata and various astrological texts; the shandhi, sucivaktra, vandhya and putraghni in the Sushruta Samhita (6.38); the shandhi, narishandha, varta, sucimukhi and putraghni in the Caraka Samhita (4.2; 4.4; 6.30), and the moghapuspa in various Sanskrit lexicons. The first three types are physically capable of bearing children whereas the remaining seven are infertile.
Wilhelm (2008) misunderstands the meaning of svairini and kamini. None of the other terms describe same-sex sexuality either. The Ayurvedic medical texts describe intersex conditions, not homosexuality or transsexuality.
Svairini, Kamini
There are multiple English translations of the Kama Sutra, which conflict dramatically in how they interpret the chapter on Purushayita ("Virile Behavior in Women"). Danielou (1994) chooses to translate svairini as "homophile" or "lesbian", interpreting "virile" (purushayita) or "inverted" (viparitarati) sexuality as when a woman uses an artificial penis to penetrate another woman or a man. Haksar (2012) Burton (1996) Madhavacharya (1911) Fosse (2012) and others reject this interpretation, understanding purushayita as when a woman allows herself to be penetrated by a man, but is more dominating or allows for rougher sex.
Analyzing the various translations of the Kamasutra, Vanita (2000) explains why "Danielou's translation of the term svairini as "lesbian" is misconceived." Svairini actually describes a "self-willed" or "autonomous" woman. In some respects she is less stereotypically feminine than other types of women. While it is believable that a sexually experienced svairini might choose to have sex with other women, it is a mistake to assume she is necessarily same-sex attracted.
A similar error is committed when kamini is translated as "bisexual". The term is mentioned in the Bhagavata Purana (5.24.16), but there is no description of same-sex sexuality. Kamini is better translated as an "amorous woman".
There are multiple English translations of the Kama Sutra, which conflict dramatically in how they interpret the chapter on Purushayita ("Virile Behavior in Women"). Danielou (1994) chooses to translate svairini as "homophile" or "lesbian", interpreting "virile" (purushayita) or "inverted" (viparitarati) sexuality as when a woman uses an artificial penis to penetrate another woman or a man. Haksar (2012) Burton (1996) Madhavacharya (1911) Fosse (2012) and others reject this interpretation, understanding purushayita as when a woman allows herself to be penetrated by a man, but is more dominating or allows for rougher sex.
Analyzing the various translations of the Kamasutra, Vanita (2000) explains why "Danielou's translation of the term svairini as "lesbian" is misconceived." Svairini actually describes a "self-willed" or "autonomous" woman. In some respects she is less stereotypically feminine than other types of women. While it is believable that a sexually experienced svairini might choose to have sex with other women, it is a mistake to assume she is necessarily same-sex attracted.
A similar error is committed when kamini is translated as "bisexual". The term is mentioned in the Bhagavata Purana (5.24.16), but there is no description of same-sex sexuality. Kamini is better translated as an "amorous woman".
Narisandha, sandha, sandhi
Narisandha is a term that appears in two ancient Ayurvedic medical texts: The Caraka Saṃhitā and Sushruta Samhita. Sweet & Zwilling (1993) chose to translate this term as "masculine lesbian female". Additionally, they claimed that sandha and sandhi also refer to lesbians.
Sweet & Zwilling (1993) write:
"For the Susruta (3.2.45) the etiology of lesbianism lies in the mother having played the male role in the conceptive coition (the same origin as that of the anal receptive male), leading to the consequent stereotypically male gender-role behavior of the lesbian. In his comment on this passage Dalhana explains such behavior: "Although feminine in form she mounts the woman like a man and rubs her own vulva [yoni] against that of the other..."
"The Caraka (6.30.34) describes "man-hating" stereotypes (nrdvesini) and breastless (astanl), similar to the Western stereotypes of the virago or amazon lesbian. Furthermore, the lesbian does not menstruate (Susruta 6.38.18). When two women "approach each other sexually, and somehow ejaculate, emitting semen (sukra), a boneless thing Gender is produced" (Susruta in 3.2.47)..."
Relying on Sweet & Zwilling's (1993) translation, Thadani (1999) commits a similar error:
"Sushrat and Charak are considered the fathers of the Ayurvedic medical tradition. Their texts, written around the first century A.D., contain several references to homosexuality. These medical texts identify homosexuality as shanda, that which is neither male nor female. One may have the male shand or the female shanda, which would be equivalent to the effeminate male homosexual or the masculine lesbian. The Sushrat Samhit (6.38.8) and the Charak Samhita (6.30.33-34) are still regarded as basic texts in the traditional Indian Ayurvedic practice of healing. In these texts, lesbians (nari-shanda, shandha, shandhi) are said to be suffering from a disease of the feminine generative organ (yoniroga). According to the Charak, this disease is caused by "inverted" intercourse or embryonic damage during conception due to a faulty sperm cell or ovum..."
"The following are the different epithets of the shandhi in the two Samhitas (Charak 6.30.34, Sushrat 6.38.18): man-hater, breastless, not fit for medical treatment, incapable of menstruation, possessing no ovum, hence sterile in the heterosexual sense..."
Thadani (1999) also notes that the terms shanda/shandali are variously translated as "a woman desiring like a man", "a woman having the properties of a man", "a biologically deficient woman", "a woman having no breasts", "a wanton woman", "a selfish woman", "an autoerotic woman".
In reality, narisandha, sandha, and sandhi do not mean "lesbian" but describe 46,XY intersex individuals who appear phenotypically female.
Sagar et al. (2021) clarify the meaning of narisandha:
"Anasthi Garbha is one of the most misunderstood and
mis-interpreted concepts of Ayurvedic paediatrics.
Most of the times this is interpreted as a boneless
foetus (According to Acharya Dalhana the meaning of
Anasthi is presence of soft bone i.e., Komal Asthi)
resulting from lesbian relationship. Acharya Dalhana
mention this is the Hetu of formation of Vikrit Apatya
(Physically and/or mentally retarded or dysmorphic).
Stree-Shukra is considered responsible in favour of
this notion. Such misunderstanding requires clarity.
Anasthi Garbha is reporting of a rare incidence of
birth of an abnormal child with skeletal dysplasia,
which results from sexual relationship between a
female (46XX) and a phenotypic female (Male
pseudohermaphrodite with spermatogenesis i.e.,
46XY). An attempt is made here for a clear scientific
understanding of Anasthi Garbha. Here Acharya
Dalhana mentions that one of the partners is
Shandhaa (Vrisha). Shandha is a feminine term meant
for hermaphrodite meaning that the person is a
transsexual with female phenotype. Acharya Sushrut
has described such Narishandha who is a female
phenotype, behaving like a male and having libido
towards females."
It is plausible that narisandha was an ancient term to describe guevedoces, or 5-alpha reducatase deficiency (5ARD). Individuals with 5ARD appear phenotypically female at birth, but have XY chromosomes and functioning testes. This causes them to apparently "transform" female-to-male during adolescence, as their testes cause them to undergo male puberty. They don't develop breasts, don't menstruate, cannot be impregnated, but are capable of ejaculating and impregnating women. Additionally, they are frequently sexually attracted to girls (Zhu & Imperato-McGinley, 2008) and cases have been reported in India (Reddy et. al, 2021). When these terms are translated as "lesbian", it is conflating homosexuality with intersexuality.
Stripumsa
Wilhelm (2008) also misinterprets the meaning of stripumsa, where he claims that it means "she is masculine in behavior and form":
"The word stripumsa refers to many different types of women who are masculine in behavior and form. Such women are strong-willed, averse to men and believed to have been males in their former lives. The stripumsa is mentioned in Vedic texts such as the Mahabharata, Sanskrit lexicons and numerous astrological works. She is produced according to previous life impressions and an equal “seed” conception
caused by various conditions of the parents."
Actually, stripumsa means "man and woman," Wilhelm's confusion is somewhat understandable, as the term is used in reference to Shikhandi, a figure from the Mahābhārata who is transformed from a woman into a man.
पाञ्चालस्य सुता जज्ञे दैवाच्च स पुनः पुमान् ।
स्त्रीपुंसोः पुरुषव्याघ्र यः स वेद गुणागुणान् ॥ ३२ ॥
स्त्रीपुंसोः पुरुषव्याघ्र यः स वेद गुणागुणान् ॥ ३२ ॥
There are parallels between Shikhandi and the myth of Iphis, as well as male-identified lesbians of India, as Shikhandi's sex change is prompted by her parents' failed attempt to marry her off to the daughter of Hiranyavarman. Shikhandi's natal sex is reversed in Javanese tradition, erasing his female-to-male status.
Tritiya-prakriti
Wilhelm (2008) also misrepresents the meaning of tritiya-prakriti.
Under the heading of tritiya-prakriti, or people of the third sex, the lesbian is
first described in the chapter of the Kama Sutra concerning aggressive behavior
in women (purushayita).16 The Sanskrit word svairini refers to an independent
or liberated woman who has refused a husband, earns her own livelihood, and
lives either alone or in marriage with another woman. Her various types of
homosexual behavior and practices are described in great detail within this
chapter.
Lesbians were more likely to marry and raise children than their male
counterparts and were readily accommodated both within the third-gender
community and ordinary society. Those who did not produce children were
sometimes known as nastriya or “not female.” Women of the third sex were
engaged in all means of livelihood including trade, government, entertainment,
as courtesans or prostitutes, and as maidservants. Sometimes they would live as
renunciates and follow ascetic vows.
As previously described, the translation of svairini as "lesbian" is a misconception (Vanita, 2000). Moreover, the term tritiya-prakriti is not used in the Chapter on Purushayita (Kamasutra 2.8). Instead, it appears in the Chapter on Oral Sex (Kamasutra 2.9), where it only describes two types of tritiya-prakriti: natal males that appear feminine, and natal males that appear masculine. Neither type includes natal females.
In the Abridged Version, Wilhelm (2010) also provides an accurate description of the term tritiya-prakriti:
"In its discussion of oral sex between men, the Kama Sutra uses the term
tritiya-prakriti (third sex or nature) to define men with homosexual desire and
describes their practices in great detail. It divides such men into two types: those
with a feminine appearance and demeanor, and those having a manly appearance
with beards, mustaches, muscular builds, etc..."
However, he also continues to describe svairini as a subcategory of tritiya-prakriti, as described in this note and other sections copied from the unabridged version:
Lesbians are known as “svairini” (literally, “independent women”) in Sanskrit and are described in detail in the Kama Sutra, where they are also addressed as “tritiya-prakriti” or a third sex (See Kama Sutra 2.8).
Why he includes these contradictory sections is unclear, and it perpetuates the misconception.
Overall, it is a mistake to assume that these ancient terms correspond 1:1 with modern LGBT identities.
Related Blog Posts
References
Burton, R. F. (1996). The Kama Sutra: The Classic Translation of 1883 by Sir Richard Burton. United Kingdom: [Data text processing Limited] [Host].
Wilhelm, A. D. (2008). Tritiya-Prakriti: People of the Third Sex: Understanding Homosexuality,Transgender Identity and Intersex Conditions Through Hinduism. GALVA-108, Inc. [Originally published in 2003 by Xlibis Corp]
Wilhelm, A. D. (2010). Tritiya-Prakriti: People of the Third Sex: Understanding Homosexuality,Transgender Identity and Intersex Conditions Through Hinduism (Abridged Version). https://img1.wsimg.com/blobby/go/4f762438-7eca-4dbc-9fc9-cdc50ec93daf/downloads/TP%20Book%20(Abridged)%20Interior.pdf?ver=1720143708510
Danielou, A. (1994). The complete Kāma Sūtra : the first unabridged modern translation of the classic Indian text by Vātsyāyana : including the Jayamangalā commentary from the Sanskrit by Yashodhara and extracts from the Hindi commentary by Devadatta Shāstrā. United States: Park Street Press.
Fosse, L. M. (2012). The Kamasutra: The Original Sanskrit and an English Translation. (n.p.): YogaVidya.com.
Haksar, A. N. D. (2012). Kama Sutra: A Guide to the Art of Pleasure. United Kingdom: Penguin Classics.
Madhavacharya. (1995). Kamasutram. Bombay: Venkateswara Steam Press. [Originally printed in 1911].
Reddy, D. S., Danda, V. S. R., & Paidipally, S. R. (2021). Phenotype variation among siblings with 5-alpha reductase deficiency: a case series. Indian Journal of Urology, 37(2), 183-186.
Sagar, M. K., Dash, B., & Shukla, U. (2021). Concept of Shukra Dhatu and Stree Shukra-A Review. Journal of Ayurveda and Integrated Medical Sciences, 6(5), 243-248.
Sweet, M. J., & Zwilling, L. (1993). The first medicalization: The taxonomy and etiology of queerness in classical Indian medicine. Journal of the History of Sexuality, 3(4), 590-607.
Thadani, G. (1999). The politics of identities and languages: Lesbian desire in ancient and modern India. Female desires: Same-sex relations and transgender practices across cultures, 67-90.
Vanita, R. (2000). Vatsyayana’s Kamasutra. In: Vanita, R., Kidwai, S. (eds) Same-Sex Love in India. Palgrave Macmillan, New York. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-349-62183-5_4
Zhu, Y., & Imperato-McGinley, J. (2008). Male sexual differentiation disorder and 5α-reductase-2 deficiency. J. Glob. Libr. Women's Med, 2008, 1-12.
Comments
Post a Comment